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[[File:Cold War Map 1959.png|right|275px|thumb|1960年冷戰形勢圖]]
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[[Image:Reagan and Gorbachev hold discussions.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[United States]] [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] (left) and [[President of the Soviet Union|President of the]] [[Soviet Union]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] meet in 1985.]]
{{History Of The Cold War}}
The '''Cold War''' ({{lang-ru|Холо́дная война́, ''Kholodnaya voyna''}}, 1947–91) was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition existing after [[World War II]] (1939–1945), primarily between the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[satellite state]]s, and the powers of the [[Western world]], particularly the [[United States]]. Although the primary participants' military forces never officially clashed directly, they expressed the conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, [[proxy war]]s, espionage, propaganda, a [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear]] [[arms race]], economic and technological competitions, such as the [[Space Race]].
'''冷戰'''係[[美國]]同到[[蘇聯]]同到佢個俚嗰盟友之間由1940年代中到1990年代初嗰一段衝突、緊張同到競爭嗰時間。到箇段期間內，箇兩隻超級強國到伓同嗰方面相互爭鬥：軍事聯盟、形態主義、心理、軍事、科技﹝包括太空賽跑﹞、哈有核武器等。冷戰包括到一隻共產嗰東方同到民主嗰西方之間嗰針對措施大交換，每邊都想讓自己更喫價，而又想同時削弱對方嗰勢力，但係又伓想打「熱」戰。不過，冷戰鬥嗰主要哈係形態主義同到理念。
Despite being [[Allies of World War II|allies]] against the [[Axis powers]] and having the most powerful military forces among peer nations, the USSR and the US disagreed about the configuration of the post-war world while occupying most of [[Europe]]. The Soviet Union created the [[Eastern Bloc]] with the eastern European countries it occupied, annexing some as [[Soviet Socialist Republics]] and maintaining others as satellite states, some of which were later consolidated as the [[Warsaw Pact]] (1955–1991). The US and some western European countries established [[containment]] of [[communism]] as a defensive policy, establishing alliances such as [[NATO]] to that end.
[[Category:軍事]]
Several such countries also coordinated the [[Marshall Plan]], especially in [[West Germany]], which the USSR opposed. Elsewhere, in [[Latin America]] and [[Southeast Asia]], the USSR assisted and helped foster [[communist revolution]]s, opposed by several Western countries and their regional allies; some they attempted to [[rollback|roll back]], with mixed results. Some countries aligned with NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and others formed the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].
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The Cold War featured periods of relative calm and of international high tension – the [[Berlin Blockade]] (1948–1949), the [[Korean War]] (1950–1953), the [[Berlin Crisis of 1961]], the [[Vietnam War]] (1959–1975), the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] (1962), the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]] (1979–1989), and the [[Able Archer 83]] NATO exercises in November 1983. Both sides sought [[détente]] to relieve political tensions and deter direct military attack, which would likely guarantee their [[mutual assured destruction]] with [[nuclear weapon]]s.
{{Link FA|pt}}
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In the 1980s, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures against the USSR, which had already suffered [[Brezhnev stagnation|severe economic stagnation]]. Thereafter, Soviet President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] introduced the liberalizing reforms of ''[[perestroika]]'' ("reconstruction", "reorganization", 1987) and ''[[glasnost]]'' ("openness", ca. 1985). The Cold War ended after [[History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)|the Soviet Union collapsed]] in 1991, leaving the United States as the dominant military power, and [[Russia]] possessing most of the Soviet Union's nuclear arsenal. The Cold War and its events have had a significant impact on the world today, and it is commonly referred to in popular culture.
==Origins of the term==
During [[World War II]], [[George Orwell]] used the term ''Cold War'' in the essay “You and the Atomic Bomb” published October 19, 1945, in the British newspaper ''[[Tribune (magazine)|Tribune]]''. Contemplating a world living in the shadow of the threat of nuclear war, he warned of a “peace that is no peace”, which he called a permanent “cold war”,<ref>{{cite book| last=Kort| first =Michael| title= The Columbia Guide to the Cold War|publisher= Columbia University Press| date =2001|pages =3}}</ref> Orwell directly referred to that war as the ideological confrontation between the Soviet Union and the Western powers.<ref>{{cite book| last=Geiger| first =Till| title= Britain and the Economic Problem of the Cold War|publisher= Ashgate Publishing| date =2004|pages =7}}</ref> Moreover, in ''The Observer'' of March 10, 1946, Orwell wrote that “[a]fter the Moscow conference last December, Russia began to make a ‘cold war’ on Britain and the British Empire.”<ref>Orwell, George, ''The Observer'', March 10, 1946</ref>
The first use of the term to describe the post–World War II [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] tensions between the USSR and its satellites and the United States and its western European allies is attributed to [[Bernard Baruch]], an American financier and presidential advisor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=54}}</ref> In South Carolina, on April 16, 1947, he delivered a speech (by journalist [[Herbert Bayard Swope]])<ref>{{cite news|first=William|last=Safire|year=2006|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/10/01/news/edsafire.php|title=Islamofascism Anyone?|work=[[The New York Times]]|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]|date=October 1, 2006|accessdate=December 25, 2008}}</ref> saying, “Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war.”<ref>'[http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=Article&id=2639 Bernard Baruch coins the term "Cold War"]', history.com, April 16, 1947. Retrieved on July 2, 2008.</ref> Newspaper reporter-columnist [[Walter Lippmann]] gave the term wide currency, with the book ''Cold War'' (1947).<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ydc3AAAAIAAJ&q=walter+lippmann+cold+war&dq=walter+lippmann+cold+war&pgis=1|author=Lippmann, Walter|title=Cold War|accessdate=2008-09-02|publisher=Harper|year=1947}}</ref>
==Background==
{{Main|Origins of the Cold War}}
{{see|Red Scare}}
[[Image:American troops in Vladivostok 1918 HD-SN-99-02013.JPEG|thumb|right|American troops in [[Vladivostok]], August 1918, during the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War]]]]
There is disagreement among historians regarding the starting point of the Cold War. While most historians trace its origins to the period immediately following World War II, others argue that it began towards the end of [[World War I]], although tensions between the [[Russian Empire]], other European countries and the United States date back to the middle of the 19th century.<ref name="Gaddis"/>
As a result of the 1917 [[Bolshevik Revolution]] in Russia (followed by its withdrawal from [[World War I]]), Soviet Russia found itself isolated in international diplomacy.<ref name="lee">{{Harvnb|Lee|1999|p=57}}</ref> Leader [[Vladimir Lenin]] stated that the Soviet Union was surrounded by a "hostile capitalist encirclement", and he viewed diplomacy as a weapon to keep Soviet enemies divided, beginning with the establishment of the Soviet [[Comintern]], which called for revolutionary upheavals abroad.<ref name="tucker34">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=34}}</ref>
Subsequent leader [[Joseph Stalin]], who viewed the Soviet Union as a "socialist island", stated that the Soviet Union must see that "the present capitalist encirclement is replaced by a socialist encirclement."<ref name="tucker46">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=46}}</ref> As early as 1925, Stalin stated that he viewed international politics as a bipolar world in which the Soviet Union would attract countries gravitating to socialism and capitalist countries would attract states gravitating toward capitalism, while the world was in a period of "temporary stabilization of capitalism" preceding its eventual collapse.<ref name="tucker47">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=47-8}}</ref>
Several events fueled suspicion and distrust between the western powers and the Soviet Union: the Bolsheviks' challenge to capitalism;<ref name = "Halliday">{{Harvnb|Halliday|2001|p=2e}}</ref> the 1926 Soviet funding of a British general workers strike causing Britain to break relations with the Soviet Union;<ref name="tucker74">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=74}}</ref> Stalin's 1927 declaration that peaceful coexistence with "the capitalist countries ... is receding into the past";<ref name="tucker75">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=75}}</ref> conspiratorial allegations in the [[Shakhty Trial|Shakhty show trial]] of a planned French and British-led [[coup d'etat]];<ref name="tucker98">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1992|p=98}}</ref> the [[Great Purge]] involving a series of campaigns of political repression and persecution in which over half a million Soviets were executed;<ref name=Pipes>Communism: A History (Modern Library Chronicles) by [[Richard Pipes]], pg 67</ref> the [[Moscow Trials|Moscow show trials]] including allegations of British, French, Japanese and German espionage;<ref name="christenson308">{{Harvnb|Christenson|1991|p=308}}</ref> the controversial death of 6-8 million people in the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]] in the [[Holodomor|1932-3 Ukrainian famine]]; western support of the [[White movement|White Army]] in the [[Russian Civil War]]; the US refusal to recognize the Soviet Union until 1933;<ref name = "Lefeber 1991">{{Harvnb|Lefeber|Fitzmaurice|Vierdag|1991|p=194–197}}</ref> and the Soviet entry into the [[Treaty of Rapallo, 1922|Treaty of Rapallo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Leffler|1992|p=21}}</ref> This outcome rendered Soviet–American relations a matter of major long-term concern for leaders in both countries.<ref name = "Gaddis">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=57}}</ref>
==World War II and post-war (1939–47)==
{{Main|Origins of the Cold War}}
===Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939-41)===
{{see|Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact| Nazi–Soviet economic relations (1934–1941)}}
Soviet relations with the West further deteriorated when, one week prior to the start of the [[World War II]], the Soviet Union and Germany signed the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], which included a secret agreement to split Poland and Eastern Europe between the two states.<ref>Day, Alan J.; East, Roger; Thomas, Richard. ''A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe'', pg. 405</ref> Beginning one week later, in September 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union divided Poland and the rest of Eastern Europe through invasions of the countries ceded to each under the Pact.<ref>{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=43-82}}</ref><ref name="ckpipe">Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, ''Stalin's Cold War'', New York : Manchester University Press, 1995, ISBN 0719042011</ref>
For the next year and a half, they engaged in [[ Nazi–Soviet economic relations (1934–1941)|an extensive economic relationship]], trading vital war materials<ref>{{Harvnb|Ericson|1999|p=1-210}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|p=598-610}}</ref> until Germany broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with [[Operation Barbarossa]], the invasion of the Soviet Union through the territories that the two countries had previously divided.<ref name="stalinswars82">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=82}}</ref>
===Allies against the Axis (1941-45)===
{{see|Eastern Front (World War II)|Western Front (World War II)|Lend-Lease}}
During their joint war effort, which began thereafter in 1941, the Soviets suspected that the British and the Americans had conspired to allow the Soviets to bear the brunt of the fighting against Nazi Germany. According to this view, the Western Allies had deliberately delayed opening a second anti-German front in order to step in at the last moment and shape the peace settlement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=151}}</ref> Thus, Soviet perceptions of the West left a strong undercurrent of tension and hostility between the Allied powers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=151–153}}</ref>
In turn, in 1944, the Soviets appeared to the Allies to have deliberately delayed the relief of the [[Armia Krajowa|Polish underground]]'s [[Warsaw Uprising]] against the Nazis.<ref>Norman Davies, "Rising'44", Pan Macmillan, 2004</ref> On at least one occasion, a Soviet fighter shot down an RAF plane supplying the Polish insurgents.<ref>Neil Orpen, "Airlift to Warsaw", University of Oklahoma Press, 1984</ref> A 'secret war' also took place between the [[SOE]]-backed [[Armia Krajowa|AK]] and [[NKVD]]-backed partisans.<ref>Norman Davies, "Rising'44", Pan Macmillan, 2004</ref>
===Wartime conferences regarding post-war Europe===
[[Image:Yalta summit 1945 with Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin.jpg|thumb|right|The "[[Allies of World War II|Big Three]]" at the Yalta Conference, [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]]]]
{{see|Tehran Conference|Yalta Conference}}
The Allies disagreed about how the European map should look, and how borders would be drawn, following the war.<ref name="Gaddis13-23">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=13–23}}</ref> Each side held dissimilar ideas regarding the establishment and maintenance of post-war security.<ref name="Gaddis13-23" /> The western Allies desired a security system in which democratic governments were established as widely as possible, permitting countries to peacefully resolve differences through [[international organization]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=156}}</ref>
Following Russian historical experiences with frequent invasions<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=7}}</ref> and the immense death toll (estimated at 27 million) and destruction the Soviet Union sustained during World War II,<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead]", BBC News, May 9, 2005. Retrieved on July 2, 2008.</ref> the Soviet Union sought to increase security by controlling the internal affairs of countries that bordered it.<ref name="Gaddis13-23" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=176}}</ref> In April 1945, both Churchill and new American President [[Harry S. Truman]] opposed, among other things, the Soviets' decision to prop up the [[Polish Committee of National Liberation|Lublin government]], the Soviet-controlled rival to the [[Polish government-in-exile]], whose relations with the Soviets were severed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zubok|1996|p=94}}</ref>
At the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, the Allies failed to reach a firm consensus on the framework for post-war settlement in Europe.<ref name="Gaddis21">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=21}}</ref> Following the [[End of World War II in Europe|Allied victory in May]], the Soviets effectively occupied Eastern Europe,<ref name="Gaddis21" /> while strong US and Western allied forces remained in Western Europe.
The Soviet Union, United States, Britain and France established [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|zones of occupation]] and a loose framework for four-power control of occupied Germany.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=22}}</ref> The Allies set up the [[United Nations]] for the maintenance of world peace, but the enforcement capacity of its [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] was effectively paralyzed by individual members' ability to use [[United Nations Security Council veto power|veto power]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bourantonis|1996|p=130}}</ref> Accordingly, the UN was essentially converted into an inactive forum for exchanging polemical rhetoric, and the Soviets regarded it almost exclusively as a propaganda tribune.<ref>{{Harvnb|Garthoff|1994|p=401}}</ref>
===Beginnings of the Eastern Bloc===
{{see|Eastern Bloc}}
During the final stages of the war, the Soviet Union laid the foundation for the [[Eastern Bloc]] by directly annexing several countries as [[Soviet Socialist Republics]] that were initially (and effectively) ceded to it by Nazi Germany in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. These included eastern [[Poland]] (incorporated into [[Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|two different SSRs]]),<ref name="stalinswars43">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=43}}</ref> [[Latvia]] (which became the [[Latvian SSR]])<ref name="wettig20">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=21}}</ref>,<ref name="wettig20"/><ref name="senn">Senn, Alfred Erich, ''Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above'', Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 9789042022256</ref> [[Estonia]] (which became the [[Estonian SSR]]),<ref name="wettig20"/><ref name="senn"/> [[Lithuania]] (which became the [[Lithuanian SSR]]),<ref name="wettig20"/><ref name="senn"/> part of eastern [[Finland]] (which became the [[Karelo-Finnish SSR]])<ref name="ckpipe"/> and eastern [[Romania]] (which became the [[Moldavian SSR]]).<ref name="stalinswars55">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=55}}</ref><ref name="shirer794">{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|p=794}}</ref>
British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] was concerned that, given the enormous size of Soviet forces deployed in Europe at the end of the war, and the perception that Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]] was unreliable, there existed a Soviet threat to Western Europe.<ref name="Telegraph">Fenton, Ben. "[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=/archive/1998/10/01/nwar101.html The secret strategy to launch attack on Red Army]", telegraph.co.uk, October 1, 1998. Retrieved on July 23, 2008.</ref>
In April-May 1945, the [[Churchill War Ministry|British War Cabinet]]'s Joint Planning Staff Committee developed [[Operation Unthinkable]], a plan "to impose upon Russia the will of the United States and the British Empire".<ref>{{cite web | last = British War Cabinet, Joint Planning Staff, Public Record Office, CAB 120/691/109040 / 002 | date = 1945-08-11 | url = http://www.history.neu.edu/PRO2/ | title = "Operation Unthinkable: 'Russia: Threat to Western Civilization'" | format = online photocopy | publisher = Department of History, Northeastern University | accessdate = 2008-06-28}}</ref> The plan, however, was rejected by the British [[Chiefs of Staff Committee]] as militarily unfeasible.<ref name="Telegraph" />
===Potsdam Conference and defeat of Japan===
[[Image:Potsdam conference 1945-6.jpg|thumb|[[Winston Churchill]], [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] at the [[Potsdam Conference]].]]
{{see|Potsdam Conference|Surrender of Japan}}
At the [[Potsdam Conference]], which started in late July after Germany's surrender, serious differences emerged over the future development of Germany and eastern Europe.<ref name = "Byrd">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Byrd, Peter|editor=McLean, Iain; McMillan, Alistair|encyclopedia=The concise Oxford dictionary of politics|title=Cold War (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xLbEHQAACAAJ&ei=E45VSJrQO4e4jgGh_oWODA|accessdate=2008-06-16|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0192802763}}</ref> Moreover, the participants' mounting antipathy and bellicose language served to confirm their suspicions about each others' hostile intentions and entrench their positions.<ref>Alan Wood, p. 62</ref> At this conference Truman informed Stalin that the United States possessed a powerful new weapon.<ref name="Gaddis25" />
Stalin was aware that the Americans were working on the atomic bomb and, given that the Soviets' own rival program was in place, he reacted to the news calmly. The Soviet leader said he was pleased by the news and expressed the hope that the weapon would be used against Japan.<ref name="Gaddis25">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=25–26}}</ref> One week after the end of the Potsdam Conference, the US [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. Shortly after the attacks, Stalin protested to US officials when Truman offered the Soviets little real influence in [[occupation of Japan|occupied Japan]].<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=28}}</ref>
===Tensions build===
{{see|Long Telegram|Iron Curtain|Restatement of Policy on Germany}}
In February 1946, [[George F. Kennan]]'s "[[X Article|Long Telegram]]" from Moscow helped to articulate the US government's increasingly hard line against the Soviets, and became the basis for US strategy toward the Soviet Union for the duration of the Cold War.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kennan|1968|p=292–295}}</ref> That September, the Soviet side produced the [[Nikolai Vasilevich Novikov|Novikov]] telegram, sent by the Soviet ambassador to the US but commissioned and "co-authored" by [[Vyacheslav Molotov]]; it portrayed the US as being in the grip of monopoly capitalists who were building up military capability "to prepare the conditions for winning world supremacy in a new war".<ref>{{Harvnb|Kydd|2005|p=107}}</ref>
On September 6, 1946, [[James F. Byrnes]] delivered a [[Restatement of Policy on Germany|speech]] in Germany repudiating the [[Morgenthau Plan]] (a proposal to partition and de-industrialize post-war Germany) and warning the Soviets that the US intended to maintain a military presence in Europe indefinitely.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=30}}</ref> As Byrnes admitted a month later, "The nub of our program was to win the German people [...] it was a battle between us and Russia over minds [...]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.daz.org/enJamesFByrnes.html|title=Southern Partnership: James F. Byrnes, Lucius D. Clay and Germany, 1945-1947|first=Curtis F.|last=Morgan|accessdate=2008-06-09|publisher=James F. Byrnes Institute}}</ref>
A few weeks after the release of this "Long Telegram", former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous "[[Iron Curtain]]" speech in [[Fulton, Missouri]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=94}}</ref> The speech called for an Anglo-American alliance against the Soviets, whom he accused of establishing an "iron curtain" from "[[Szczecin|Stettin]] in the Baltic to [[Trieste]] in the Adriatic".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711|title=Churchill and...Politics: The True Meaning of the Iron Curtain Speech|author=Harriman, Pamela C.|accessdate=2008-06-22|publisher=Winston Churchill Centre|date=Winter 1987–1988}}</ref><ref name = "Schmitz">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Schmitz, David F.|editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John|encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|title=Cold War (1945–91): Causes [entire chapter]|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xtMKHgAACAAJ&dq=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History|accessdate=2008-06-16|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0195071980}}</ref>
==Containment through the Korean War (1947–53)==
{{Main|Cold War (1947–1953)}}
===Soviet satellite states===
[[File:EasternBloc BorderChange38-48.svg|left|thumb|200px|Formation of the Eastern Bloc]]
{{see|Eastern Bloc|Cominform}}
After annexing several occupied countries as [[Soviet Socialist Republics]] at the end of World War II, other occupied states were added to the [[Eastern Bloc]] by converting them into puppet [[Satellite state|Soviet Satellite]] states,<ref name = "Schmitz" /> such as [[East Germany]],<ref name="wettig96">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=96-100}}</ref> the [[People's Republic of Poland]], the [[People's Republic of Hungary]],<ref name="granville">Granville, Johanna, ''The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956'', Texas A&M University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58544-298-4</ref> the [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Grenville|2005|p=370-71}}</ref> the [[People's Republic of Romania]] and the [[People's Republic of Albania]].<ref name="cook17">{{Harvnb|Cook|2001|p=17}}</ref>
The Soviet-style regimes that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced Soviet [[command economy|command economies]], but also adopted the brutal methods employed by [[Joseph Stalin]] and Soviet secret police to suppress real and potential opposition.<ref name="roht83">{{Harvnb|Roht-Arriaza|1995|p=83}}</ref> In Asia, the Red Army had overrun [[Manchuria]] in the last month of the war, and went on to occupy the large swath of Korean territory located north of the 38th parallel.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=40}}</ref>
In September 1947, the Soviets created [[Cominform]], the purpose of which was to enforce orthodoxy within the international communist movement and tighten political control over Soviet [[Satellite state|satellites]] through coordination of communist parties in the [[Eastern Bloc]].<ref name="Gaddis32" /> Cominform faced an embarrassing setback the following June, when the [[Tito–Stalin split]] obliged its members to expel Yugoslavia, which remained Communist but adopted a [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned]] position.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carabott|Sfikas|2004|p=66}}</ref>
As part of the Soviet domination of the Eastern Bloc, the [[NKVD]], led by [[Lavrentiy Beria]], supervised the establishment of Soviet-style secret police systems in the Bloc that were supposed to crush anti-communist resistance.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34"/> When the slightest stirrings of independence emerged in the Bloc, Stalin's strategy matched that of dealing with domestic pre-war rivals: they were removed from power, put on trial, imprisoned, and in several instances, executed.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 100">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=100}}</ref>
===Containment and the Truman Doctrine===
[[Image:Cold war europe military alliances map en.png|thumb|European military alliances]]
{{main|Containment|Truman Doctrine}}
By 1947, US president Harry S. Truman's advisers urged him to take immediate steps to counter the Soviet Union's influence, citing Stalin's efforts (amid post-war confusion and collapse) to undermine the US by encouraging rivalries among capitalists that could precipitate another war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=27}}</ref> In February 1947, the British government announced that it could no longer afford to finance the Greek monarchical military regime in [[Greek Civil War|its civil war]] against communist-led insurgents.
The American government's response to this announcement was the adoption of [[containment]],<ref name="Gaddis28">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=28–29}}</ref> the goal of which was to stop the spread of communism. Truman delivered a speech that called for the allocation of $400 million to intervene in the war and unveiled the [[Truman Doctrine]], which framed the conflict as a contest between free peoples and totalitarian regimes.<ref name="Gaddis28" /> Even though the insurgents were helped by [[Josip Broz Tito]]'s [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]],<ref name ="Lefeber 1991" /> US policymakers accused the Soviet Union of conspiring against the Greek royalists in an effort to [[Domino theory|expand]] Soviet influence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=38}}</ref>
Enunciation of the Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of a US bipartisan defense and foreign policy consensus between [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] focused on containment and deterrence that weakened during and after the [[Vietnam War]], but ultimately held steady.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hahn|1993|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Higgs|2006|p=137}}</ref> Moderate and conservative parties in Europe, as well as social democrats, gave virtually unconditional support to the Western alliance,<ref>{{Harvnb|Moschonas|Elliott|2002|p=21}}</ref> while European and American Communists, paid by the [[KGB]] and involved in its intelligence operations,<ref>{{cite book| last=Andrew| first =Christopher| coauthors=Mitrokhin, Vasili| title= The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB|publisher= Basic Books| date =2000|pages =276}}</ref> adhered to Moscow's line, although dissent began to appear after 1956. Other critiques of consensus politics came from [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam War activists]], the [[CND]] and the [[nuclear freeze]] movement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Crocker|Hampson|Aall|2007|p=55}}</ref>
===Marshall Plan and Czechoslovak coup d'état===
[[Image:Marshall Plan.png|right|thumb|Map of Cold-War era Europe and the Near East showing countries that received [[Marshall Plan]] aid. The red columns show the relative amount of total aid per nation.]]
[[Image:Cold war europe economic alliances map en.png|thumb|European economic alliances]]
{{main|Marshall Plan|Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948}}
In early 1947, Britain, France and the United States unsuccessfully attempted to reach an agreement with the Soviet Union for a plan envisioning an economically self-sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets.<ref name="miller16">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=16}}</ref> In June 1947, in accordance with the [[Truman Doctrine]], the United States enacted the [[Marshall Plan]], a pledge of economic assistance for all European countries willing to participate, including the Soviet Union.<ref name="miller16"/>
The plan's aim was to rebuild the democratic and economic systems of Europe and to counter perceived threats to Europe's balance of power, such as communist parties seizing control through revolutions or elections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|1990|p=186}}</ref> The plan also stated that European prosperity was contingent upon German economic recovery.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,887417,00.html|title=Pas de Pagaille!|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=July 28, 1947|accessdate=2008-05-28}}</ref> One month later, Truman signed the [[National Security Act of 1947]], creating a unified [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA), and the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]]. These would become the main bureaucracies for US policy in the Cold War.<ref name= "Karabell" >{{Harvnb|Karabell|1999|p=916}}</ref>
Stalin believed that economic integration with the West would allow [[Eastern Bloc]] countries to escape Soviet control, and that the US was trying to buy a pro-US re-alignment of Europe.<ref name="Gaddis32">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=32}}</ref> Stalin therefore prevented Eastern Bloc nations from receiving Marshall Plan aid.<ref name="Gaddis32" /> The Soviet Union's alternative to the Marshall plan, which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with eastern Europe, became known as the [[Molotov Plan]] (later institutionalized in January 1949 as the [[Comecon]]).<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" /> Stalin was also fearful of a reconstituted Germany; his vision of a post-war Germany did not include the ability to rearm or pose any kind of threat to the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=105–106}}</ref>
In early 1948, following reports of strengthening "reactionary elements", Soviet operatives executed a [[Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948|coup d'état of 1948]] in [[Czechoslovakia]], the only Eastern Bloc state that the Soviets had permitted to retain democratic structures.<ref name="wettig86">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=86}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Patterson|1997|p=132}}</ref> The public brutality of the coup shocked Western powers more than any event up to that point, set in a motion a brief scare that war would occur and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to the Marshall Plan in the United States Congress.<ref name="miller19">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=19}}</ref>
The twin policies of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan led to billions in economic and military aid for Western Europe, and Greece and Turkey. With US assistance, the Greek military won its civil war,<ref name = "Karabell" /> The Italian [[Christian Democracy (Italy, historical)|Christian Democrats]] defeated the powerful [[Italian Communist Party|Communist]]-[[Italian Socialist Party|Socialist]] alliance in the [[Italian general election, 1948|elections of 1948]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=162}}</ref> Increases occurred in intelligence and espionage activities, [[Eastern Bloc emigration and defection|Eastern Bloc defections]] and diplomatic expulsions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cowley|1996|p=157}}</ref>
===Berlin Blockade and airlift===
[[Image:C-47s at Tempelhof Airport Berlin 1948.jpg|thumb|C-47s unloading at [[Tempelhof International Airport|Tempelhof Airport]] in Berlin during the Berlin Blockade.]]
{{main|Berlin Blockade}}
The United States and Britain merged their western German occupation zones into [[Bizone|"Bizonia"]] (later "trizonia" with the addition of France's zone).<ref name="miller13">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=13}}</ref> As part of the economic rebuilding of Germany, in early 1948, representatives of a number of Western European governments and the United States announced an agreement for a merger of western German areas into a federal governmental system.<ref name="miller18">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=18}}</ref> In addition, in accordance with the [[Marshall Plan]], they began to re-industrialize and rebuild the German economy, including the introduction of a new [[Deutsche Mark]] currency to replace the old [[Reichsmark]] currency that the Soviets had debased.<ref name="miller31">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=31}}</ref>
Shortly thereafter, Stalin instituted the [[Berlin Blockade]], one of the first major crises of the Cold War, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in [[West Berlin]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=33}}</ref> The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began the massive "Berlin airlift", supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=65-70}}</ref>
The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the policy change, communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948 preceding large losses therein,<ref>Turner, Henry Ashby, ''The Two Germanies Since 1945: East and West'', Yale University Press, 1987, ISBN 0300038658, page 29</ref> 300,000 Berliners demonstrated and urged the international airlift to continue,<ref>Fritsch-Bournazel, Renata, ''Confronting the German Question: Germans on the East-West Divide'', Berg Publishers, 1990, ISBN 0854966846, page 143</ref> and the US accidentally created "Operation Vittles", which supplied candy to German children.<ref name="miller26">{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=26}}</ref> In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the blockade.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=34}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|2000|p=180-81}}</ref>
===NATO beginnings and Radio Free Europe===
{{main|NATO|Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Eastern Bloc information dissemination}}
[[Image:NationalSecurityAct.jpg|right|thumb|President Truman signs the [[National Security Act of 1947|National Security Act Amendment of 1949]] with guests in the Oval Office.]]
Britain, France, the United States, Canada and eight other western European countries signed the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] of April 1949, establishing the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO).<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 34"/> That August, Stalin ordered the detonation of the first Soviet atomic device.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" /> Following Soviet refusals to participate in a German rebuilding effort set forth by western European countries in 1948,<ref name="miller18"/><ref name="turner23">{{Harvnb|Turner|1987|p=23}}</ref> the US, Britain and France spearheaded the establishment of West Germany from the [[Bizone|three Western zones of occupation]] in May 1949.<ref name = "Byrd" /> The Soviet Union proclaimed its zone of occupation in Germany the [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] that October.<ref name = "Byrd" />
Media in the [[Eastern Bloc]] was an [[Eastern Bloc information dissemination|organ of the state, completely reliant on and subservient to the communist party]], with radio and television organizations being state-owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the local communist party.<ref name="oneil15">{{cite book|last=O'Neil|first=Patrick|title=Post-communism and the Media in Eastern Europe|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0714647659|p=15-25}}</ref> Soviet propaganda used Marxist philosophy to attack capitalism, claiming labor exploitation and war-mongering imperialism were inherent in the system.<ref>James Wood, p. 111</ref>
Along with the broadcasts of the [[British Broadcasting Company]] and the [[Voice of America]] to Eastern Europe,<ref>{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=131}}</ref> a major propaganda effort begun in 1949 was [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], dedicated to bringing about the peaceful demise of the [[Communism|Communist]] system in the Eastern Bloc.<ref name="Puddington9" /> Radio Free Europe attempted to achieve these goals by serving as a surrogate home radio station, an alternative to the controlled and party-dominated domestic press.<ref name="Puddington9">{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=9}}</ref> Radio Free Europe was a product of some of the most prominent architects of America's early Cold War strategy, especially those who believed that the Cold War would eventually be fought by political rather than military means, such as George F. Kennan.<ref name="Puddington7">{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=7}}</ref>
American policymakers, including Kennan and [[John Foster Dulles]], acknowledged that the Cold War was in its essence a war of ideas.<ref name=Puddington7 /> The United States, acting through the CIA, funded a long list of projects to counter the Communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe and the developing world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Puddington|2003|p=10}}</ref>
In the early 1950s, the US worked for the rearmament of West Germany and, in 1955, secured its full membership of NATO.<ref name = "Byrd" /> In May 1953, Beria, by then in a government post, had made an unsuccessful proposal to allow the reunification of a neutral Germany to prevent West Germany's incorporation into NATO.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=105}}</ref>
===Chinese Civil War and SEATO===
{{see|Chinese Civil War|Southeast Asia Treaty Organization}}
In 1949, [[Mao Zedong|Mao's]] People's Liberation Army defeated [[Chiang Kai-shek|Chiang's]] US-backed [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) Nationalist Government in China, and the Soviet Union promptly created an alliance with the newly formed [[People's Republic of China]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=39}}</ref> The Nationalist Government retreated to the island of [[Taiwan]]. Confronted with the Communist takeover of mainland China and the end of the US atomic monopoly in 1949, the Truman administration quickly moved to escalate and expand the [[containment]] policy.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" /> In [[NSC-68]], a secret 1950 document,<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 164">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=164}}</ref> the National Security Council proposed to reinforce pro-Western alliance systems and quadruple spending on defense.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" />
US officials moved thereafter to expand containment into Asia, Africa, and Latin America, in order to counter revolutionary nationalist movements, often led by Communist parties financed by the USSR, fighting against the restoration of Europe's colonial empires in South-East Asia and elsewhere.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p= 212}}</ref> In the early 1950s (a period sometimes known as the "[[Pactomania]]"), the US formalized a series of alliances with Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines (notably [[ANZUS]] and [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]]), thereby guaranteeing the United States a number of long-term military bases.<ref name = "Byrd" />
===Korean War===
{{main|Korean War}}
One of the more significant impacts of containment was the outbreak of the [[Korean War]]. In June 1950, [[Kim Il-Sung]]'s [[Korean People's Army|North Korean People's Army]] invaded South Korea.<ref name="Stokesbury1990">{{cite book |title= A Short History of the Korean War|last=Stokesbury |first= James L|year= 1990|publisher=Harper Perennial |location= New York|isbn= 0688095135|pg=14}}</ref> To Stalin's surprise,<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" /> the UN Security Council backed the defense of South Korea, though the Soviets were then boycotting meetings to protest that [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] and not [[People's Republic of China|Communist China]] held a permanent seat on the Council.<ref>{{Harvnb|Malkasian|2001|p=16}}</ref> A UN force of personnel from [[South Korea]], the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Turkey]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[France]], the [[Philippines]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[New Zealand]] and other countries joined to stop the invasion.<ref>Fehrenbach, T. R., ''This Kind of War: The Classic Korean War History'', Brasseys, 2001, ISBN 1574883348, page 305</ref>
Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised [[NATO]] to develop a military structure.<ref>{{Harvnb|Isby|Kamps|1985|p=13–14}}</ref> Public opinion in countries involved, such as Great Britain, was divided for and against the war. British Attorney General Sir [[Hartley Shawcross, Baron Shawcross|Hartley Shawcross]] repudiated the sentiment of those opposed when he said:<ref>Column by [[Ernest Borneman]], ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'', May 1951</ref>
{{quote|I know there are some who think that the horror and devastation of a world war now would be so frightful, whoever won, and the damage to civilization so lasting, that it would be better to submit to Communist domination. I understand that view–but I reject it.}}
Even though the Chinese and North Koreans were exhausted by the war and were prepared to end it by late 1952, Stalin insisted that they continue fighting, and a cease-fire was approved only in July 1953, after Stalin's death.<ref name = "Byrd" /> In North Korea, Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized and brutal [[dictatorship]], according himself unlimited power and generating a formidable [[cult of personality]].<ref>Oberdorfer, Don, ''The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History'', Basic Books, 2001, ISBN 0465051626, page 10-11</ref><ref>No, Kum-Sok and J. Roger Osterholm, ''A MiG-15 to Freedom: Memoir of the Wartime North Korean Defector who First Delivered the Secret Fighter Jet to the Americans in 1953'', McFarland, 1996, ISBN 0786402105</ref>
==Crisis and escalation (1953–62)==
{{Main|Cold War (1953–1962)}}
===Khrushchev, Eisenhower and De-Stalinization===
In 1953, changes in political leadership on both sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War.<ref name= "Karabell" >Karabell, p. 916</ref> [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] was inaugurated president that January. During the last 18 months of the Truman administration, the US defense budget had quadrupled, and Eisenhower moved to reduce military spending by a third while continuing to fight the Cold War effectively.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" />
After the death of [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Nikita Khrushchev]] became the Soviet leader following the deposition and execution of [[Lavrentiy Beria]] and the pushing aside of rivals [[Georgy Malenkov]] and [[Vyacheslav Molotov]]. On February 25, 1956, Khrushchev shocked delegates to the 20th Congress of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet Communist Party]] by [[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences|cataloguing and denouncing Stalin's crimes]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=107}}</ref> As part of a campaign of [[de-Stalinization]], he declared that the only way to reform and move away from Stalin's policies would be to acknowledge errors made in the past.<ref name = "Karabell" />
On November 18, 1956, while addressing Western ambassadors at a reception at the Polish embassy in Moscow, Khrushchev used his famous "Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you" expression, shocking everyone present.<ref>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867329,00.html We Will Bury You!]", ''[[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]]'', November 26, 1956. Retrieved on June 26, 2008.</ref> However, he had not been talking about nuclear war, he later claimed, but rather about the historically determined victory of communism over capitalism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=84}}</ref> He then declared in 1961 that even if the USSR might indeed be behind the West, within a decade its housing shortage would disappear, consumer goods would be abundant, its population would be "materially provided for", and within two decades, the Soviet Union "would rise to such a great height that, by comparison, the main capitalist countries will remain far below and well behind".<ref>{{Harvnb|Taubman|2004|p=427 & 511}}</ref>
Eisenhower's secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated a "[[New Look (policy)|New Look]]" for the [[containment]] strategy, calling for a greater reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in wartime.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Dulles also enunciated the doctrine of "massive retaliation", threatening a severe US response to any Soviet aggression. Possessing nuclear superiority, for example, allowed Eisenhower to face down Soviet threats to intervene in the Middle East during the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]].<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" />
===Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution===
{{main|Warsaw Pact|Hungarian Revolution of 1956}}
[[Image:Map of Warsaw Pact countries.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the [[Warsaw Pact]] countries]]
While [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]'s death in 1953 slightly relaxed tensions, the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce.<ref name = "Palmowski">{{Harvnb|Palmowski|year=2004}}</ref> The Soviets, who had already created a network of mutual assistance treaties in the [[Eastern Bloc]] by 1949,<ref>Feldbrugge, p. 818</ref> established a formal alliance therein, the [[Warsaw Pact]], in 1955.<ref name = "Byrd" />
The [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]] occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary's Stalinist leader [[Mátyás Rákosi]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/4/newsid_2739000/2739039.stm|title=Soviet troops overrun Hungary|publisher=BBC News|date=November 4, 1956|accessdate=2008-06-11}}</ref> In response to a popular uprising,<ref>'''Video''': Revolt in Hungary {{[http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/selection/rip/4/av/1956-44.html] Narrator: [[Walter Cronkite]], producer: CBS (1956) - Fonds 306, Audiovisual Materials Relating to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, OSA Archivum, Budapest, Hungary ID number: HU OSA 306-0-1:40}}</ref> the new regime formally disbanded the [[ÁVH|secret police]], declared its intention to withdraw from the [[Warsaw Pact]] and pledged to re-establish free elections. The Soviet [[Red Army]] invaded.<ref name=troops>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{PDF|[http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf Chapter IV. E (Logistical deployment of new Soviet troops), para 181 (p. 56)]|1.47 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 1548737 bytes -->}}</ref> Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union,<ref>{{cite web | title = Report by Soviet Deputy Interior Minister M. N. Holodkov to Interior Minister N. P. Dudorov (15 November 1956) | work = The 1956 Hungarian Revolution, A History in Documents | publisher = George Washington University: The National Security Archive | date = 4 November 2002 | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc8.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-09-02}}</ref> and approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in the chaos.<ref name="Cseresneyes">{{cite journal| last = Cseresnyés| first = Ferenc | title = The '56 Exodus to Austria| journal = The Hungarian Quarterly| volume = XL| issue = 154 | pages = 86–101| publisher = Society of the Hungarian Quarterly | url = http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no154/086.html | date = Summer 1999 | accessdate = 2006-10-09 }}</ref> Hungarian leader [[Imre Nagy]] and others were executed following secret trials.<ref name="BBCJune16">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/16/ "On This Day 16 June 1989: Hungary reburies fallen hero Imre Nagy"] British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reports on Nagy reburial with full honors. (Accessed 13 October 2006)</ref>
From 1957 through 1961, Khrushchev openly and repeatedly threatened the West with nuclear annihilation. He claimed that Soviet missile capabilities were far superior to those of the United States, capable of wiping out any American or European city. However, Khrushchev rejected Stalin's belief in the inevitability of war, and declared his new goal was to be "peaceful coexistence".<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=70}}</ref> This formulation modified the Stalin-era Soviet stance, where international [[class struggle]] meant the two opposing camps were on an inevitable collision course where Communism would triumph through global war; now, peace would allow capitalism to collapse on its own,<ref>{{Harvnb|Perlmutter|1997|p=145}}</ref> as well as giving the Soviets time to boost their military capabilities,<ref>{{Harvnb|Njolstad|2004|p=136}}</ref> which remained for decades until Gorbachev's later "new thinking" envisioning peaceful coexistence as an end in itself rather than a form of class struggle.<ref>Breslauer, p. 72</ref>
US pronouncements concentrated on American strength abroad and the success of liberal capitalism.<ref>Joshel, p. 128</ref> However, by the late 1960s, the "battle for men's minds" between two systems of social organization that Kennedy spoke of in 1961 was largely over, with tensions henceforth based primarily on clashing geopolitical objectives rather than ideology.<ref>Rycroft, p. 7</ref>
===Berlin ultimatum and European integration===
During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city", giving the United States, Great Britain, and France a six-month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors they still occupied in West Berlin, or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans. Khrushchev earlier explained to [[Mao Tse-tung]] that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin."<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=71}}</ref> NATO formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva conference on the German question.<ref>Glees, pp. 126–27</ref>
More broadly, one hallmark of the 1950s was the beginning of [[European integration]]—a fundamental by-product of the Cold War that Truman and Eisenhower promoted politically, economically, and militarily, but which later administrations viewed ambivalently, fearful that an independent Europe would forge a separate détente with the Soviet Union, which would use this to exacerbate Western disunity.<ref>Hanhimaki, p. 312–13</ref>
===Worldwide competition===
Nationalist movements in some countries and regions, notably [[Guatemala]], [[Iran]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Indochina]] were often allied with communist groups—or at least were perceived in the West to be allied with communists.<ref name = "Karabell" /> In this context, the US and the Soviet Union increasingly competed for influence by proxy in the Third World as [[decolonization]] gained momentum in the 1950s and early 1960s;<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=121–124}}</ref> additionally, the Soviets saw continuing losses by imperial powers as presaging the eventual victory of their ideology.<ref>Edelheit, p. 382</ref>
The US government utilized the [[CIA]] in order to remove a string of unfriendly Third World governments and to support allied ones.<ref name = "Karabell" /> The US used the CIA to overthrow governments suspected by Washington of turning pro-Soviet, including Iran's first democratically elected government under Prime Minister [[Mohammed Mosaddeq]] in 1953 (''see [[1953 Iranian coup d'état]]'') and Guatemala's democratically elected president [[Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán]] in 1954 (''see [[1954 Guatemalan coup d'état]]'').<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 164"/> Between 1954 and 1961, the US sent economic aid and military advisors to stem the collapse of [[South Vietnam|South Vietnam's]] pro-Western regime.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" />
Many emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose sides in the East-West competition. In 1955, at the [[Asian-African Conference|Bandung Conference]] in Indonesia, dozens of Third World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=126}}</ref> The consensus reached at Bandung culminated with the creation of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] in 1961.<ref name = "Karabell" /> Meanwhile, Khrushchev broadened Moscow's policy to establish ties with [[India]] and other key neutral states. Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising nationalism in Asia and Latin America.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" />
===Sino-Soviet split, space race, ICBMs===
[[Image:Space Race 1957-1975 .jpg|thumb|right|Charting the [[Space Race]] in context of [[Sputnik]] and other nuclear threats.]]
{{main|Sino-Soviet split|Space Race}}
The period after 1956 was marked by serious setbacks for the Soviet Union, most notably the breakdown of the Sino-Soviet alliance, beginning the [[Sino-Soviet split]]. [[Mao]] had defended Stalin when Khrushchev attacked him after his death in 1956, and treated the new Soviet leader as a superficial upstart, accusing him of having lost his revolutionary edge.<ref name="Gaddis142" />
After this, Khrushchev made many desperate attempts to reconstitute the Sino-Soviet alliance, but Mao considered it useless and denied any proposal.<ref name="Gaddis142">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=142}}</ref> The Chinese and the Soviets waged an intra-Communist propaganda war.<ref>Jacobs, p. 120</ref> Further on, the Soviets focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao's China for leadership of the global communist movement,<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=140–142}}</ref> and the two [[Sino-Soviet border conflict|clashed militarily]] in 1969.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=149}}</ref>
On the [[nuclear weapon]]s front, the US and the USSR pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long-range weapons with which they could strike the territory of the other.<ref name = "Byrd" /> In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world's first [[intercontinental ballistic missile]] (ICBM)<ref>Lackey, p. 49</ref> and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, [[Sputnik program|Sputnik]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/4/newsid_2685000/2685115.stm|title=Sputnik satellite blasts into space|publisher=BBC News|date=October 4, 1957|accessdate=2008-06-11}}</ref> The launch of Sputnik inaugurated the [[Space Race]]. This culminated in the [[Apollo program|Apollo Moon landings]], which astronaut [[Frank Borman]] later described as "just a battle in the Cold War"<ref>{{cite web| title = To Boldly Go|author=Klesius, Michael| publisher = ''Air & Space''| url = http://www.airspacemag.com/space-exploration/To-Boldly-Go.html|accessdate=2009-01-07|date=2008-12-19}}</ref> with superior spaceflight rockets indicating superior ICBMs.
===Berlin Crisis of 1961===
[[Image:Checkpoint Charlie 1961-10-27.jpg|thumb|[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] tanks face US tanks at [[Checkpoint Charlie]], on October 27, during the Berlin Crisis of 1961]]
{{main|Berlin Crisis of 1961|Berlin Wall|Eastern Bloc emigration and defection}}
The [[Berlin Crisis of 1961]] was the last major incident in the Cold War regarding the status of Berlin and [[History of Germany since 1945|post-World War II Germany]]. By the early 1950s, the [[Eastern Bloc emigration and defection|Soviet approach to restricting emigration movement]] was emulated by most of the rest of the [[Eastern Bloc]].<ref name="dowty114">{{Harvnb|Dowty|1989|p=114}}</ref> However, hundreds of thousands of [[East Germany|East Germans]] annually emigrated to [[West Germany]] through a "loophole" in the system that existed between East and West [[Berlin]], where the four occupying World War II powers governed movement.<ref name="harrison99">{{Harvnb|Harrison|2003|p=99}}</ref>
The emigration resulted in a massive "brain drain" from East Germany to West Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20% of East Germany's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961.<ref name="dowty122">{{Harvnb|Dowty|1989|p=122}}</ref> That June, the [[Soviet Union]] issued a new [[ultimatum]] demanding the withdrawal of [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces from [[West Berlin]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=114}}</ref> The request was rebuffed, and in August, East Germany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the [[Berlin Wall]], effectively closing the loophole.<ref name="pearson75">{{Harvnb|Pearson|1998|p=75}}</ref>
===Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev ouster===
{{main|Cuban Missile Crisis}}
The Soviet Union formed an alliance with [[Fidel Castro]]-led [[Cuba]] after the [[Cuban Revolution]] in 1959.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=76}}</ref> In 1962, President [[John F. Kennedy]] responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade. The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=82}}</ref> It further demonstrated the concept of [[mutual assured destruction|mutually assured destruction]], that neither nuclear power was prepared to use nuclear weapons fearing total destruction via nuclear retaliation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=80}}</ref> The aftermath of the crisis led to the first efforts in the [[nuclear arms race]] at nuclear disarmament and improving relations,<ref name = "Palmowski" /> although the Cold War's first arms control agreement, the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]], had come into force in 1961.<ref>National Research Council Committee on Antarctic Policy and Science, p. 33</ref>
In 1964, Khrushchev's Kremlin colleagues managed to [[Nikita Khrushchev#Ouster|oust]] him, but allowed him a peaceful retirement.<ref name="Gaddis119">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=119–120}}</ref> Accused of rudeness and incompetence, he was also credited with ruining Soviet agriculture and bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war.<ref name="Gaddis119" /> Khrushchev had become an international embarrassment when he authorised construction of the Berlin Wall, a public humiliation for Marxism-Leninism.<ref name="Gaddis119" />
==Confrontation through détente (1962–79)==
{{Main|Cold War (1962–1979)}}
[[File:Aldrin Apollo 11.jpg|right|thumb|The United States [[Apollo 11|reached the moon]] in 1969—a symbolic milestone in the [[space race]].]]
[[Image:F-4B VF-161 CV-41 TU-95.JPEG|right|thumb|United States Navy [[F-4 Phantom II]] intercepts a Soviet [[Tupolev Tu-95]] D aircraft in the early 1970s]]
In the course of the 1960s and '70s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs.<ref name = "Karabell" /> From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and '60s, with [[per capita]] [[GDP]]s approaching those of the United States, while [[Eastern Bloc economies|Eastern Bloc economies stagnated]].<ref name="Karabell" /><ref name="hardt16">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=16}}</ref>
As a result of the [[1973 oil crisis]], combined with the growing influence of Third World alignments such as the [[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC) and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], less-powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to pressure from either superpower.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212"/> Moscow, meanwhile, was forced to turn its attention inward to deal with the Soviet Union's deep-seated domestic economic problems.<ref name="Karabell" /> During this period, Soviet leaders such as [[Alexey Kosygin]] and [[Leonid Brezhnev]] embraced the notion of [[détente]].<ref name = "Karabell" />
===Dominican Republic and French NATO withdrawal===
{{main|United States invasion of the Dominican Republic}}
President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] landed 22,000 troops in the [[Dominican Republic]] in [[United States invasion of the Dominican Republic|Operation Power Pack]], citing the threat of the emergence of a Cuban-style revolution in Latin America.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" /> [[NATO]] countries remained primarily dependent on the US military for its defense against any potential Soviet invasion, a status most vociferously contested by France's [[Charles de Gaulle]], who in 1966 withdrew from NATO's military structures and expelled NATO troops from French soil.<ref>Muravchik, p. 62</ref>
===Czechoslovakia invasion===
{{main|Prague Spring|Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia}}
In 1968, a period of political liberalization in [[Czechoslovakia]] called the [[Prague Spring]] took place that included "[[Action Programme (1968)|Action Program]]" of liberalizations, which described increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on [[consumer goods]], the possibility of a multiparty government, limiting the power of the secret police<ref>Ello (ed.), Paul (April 1968). Control Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, "Action Plan of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (Prague, April 1968)" in ''Dubcek’s Blueprint for Freedom: His original documents leading to the invasion of Czechoslovakia.'' William Kimber & Co. 1968, pp 32, 54</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Von Geldern | first = James | last2 = Siegelbaum | first2 = Lewis| publisher = Soviethistory.org| title = The Soviet-led Intervention in Czechoslovakia| url = http://soviethistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1968czechoslovakia&Year=1968| accessdate = 2008-03-07 }}</ref> and potentially withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 150">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=150}}</ref>
The Soviet [[Red Army]], together with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|invaded Czechoslovakia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21/newsid_2781000/2781867.stm|title=Russia brings winter to Prague Spring|publisher=BBC News|date=August 21, 1968|accessdate=2008-06-10}}</ref> The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000.<ref>{{cite web | last = Čulík| first = Jan| title = Den, kdy tanky zlikvidovaly české sny Pražského jara| url = http://www.britskelisty.cz/9808/19980821h.html| publisher = Britské Listy| accessdate = 2008-01-23 }}</ref> The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania and China, and from Western European communist parties.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 154">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=154}}</ref>
===Brezhnev Doctrine===
[[Image:Leonid Brezhnev and Richard Nixon talks in 1973.png|left|thumb|Brezhnev and Nixon during Brezhnev's June 1973 visit to Washington; this was a high-water mark in détente between the United States and the Soviet Union.]]
{{main|Brezhnev Doctrine}}
In September 1968, during a speech at the Fifth Congress of the [[Polish United Workers' Party]] one month after the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|invasion of Czechoslovakia]], Brezhnev outlined the [[Brezhnev Doctrine]], in which he claimed the right to violate the sovereignty of any country attempting to replace Marxism-Leninism with capitalism. During the speech, Brezhnev stated:<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 150"/>
{{quote|When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.}}
The doctrine found its origins in the failures of [[Marxism-Leninism]] in states like Poland, Hungary and East Germany, which were facing a declining standard of living contrasting with the prosperity of West Germany and the rest of Western Europe.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=153}}</ref>
===Third World escalations===
{{main|Vietnam War|Operation Condor|Yom Kippur War}}
The US continued to spend heavily on supporting friendly Third World regimes in Asia. Conflicts in peripheral regions and client states—most prominently in Vietnam—continued.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=133}}</ref> Johnson stationed 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the [[Viet Cong|National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam]] (NLF) and their North Vietnamese allies in the [[Vietnam War]], but his costly policy weakened the US economy and, by 1975, ultimately culminated in what most of the world saw as a humiliating defeat of the world's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world's poorest nations.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" />
Additionally, [[Operation Condor]], employed by South American dictators to suppress leftist dissent, was backed by the US, which (sometimes accurately) perceived Soviet or Cuban support behind these opposition movements.<ref>McSherry, p. 13</ref> Brezhnev, meanwhile, attempted to revive the Soviet economy, which was declining in part because of heavy military expenditures.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" />
Moreover, the Middle East continued to be a source of contention. Egypt, which received the bulk of its arms and economic assistance from the USSR, was a troublesome client, with a reluctant Soviet Union feeling obliged to assist in both the 1967 [[Six-Day War]] (with advisers and technicians) and the [[War of Attrition]] (with pilots and aircraft) against US ally Israel;<ref>Stone, p. 230</ref> Syria and Iraq later received increased assistance as well as (indirectly) the [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]].<ref>Friedman, p. 330</ref>
During the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], rumors of imminent Soviet intervention on the Egyptians' behalf brought about a massive US mobilization that threatened to wreck détente;<ref>Kumaraswamy, p. 127</ref> this escalation, the USSR's first in a regional conflict central to US interests, inaugurated a new and more turbulent stage of Third World military activism in which the Soviets made use of their new strategic parity.<ref>Porter, p. 113</ref>
===Sino-American relations===
{{main|1972 Nixon visit to China}}
As a result of the [[Sino-Soviet split]], tensions along the Chinese-Soviet border [[Sino-Soviet border conflict|reached their peak]] in 1969, and US President [[Richard Nixon]] decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War.<ref>Dallek, Robert (2007), p. 144.</ref> The Chinese had sought improved relations with the US in order to gain advantage over the Soviets as well.
In February 1972, Nixon announced a stunning rapprochement with Mao's China<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=149–152}}</ref> by traveling to Beijing and meeting with [[Mao Zedong]] and [[Zhou Enlai]]. At this time, the USSR achieved rough nuclear parity with the US while the [[Vietnam War]] weakened US influence in the Third World and cooled relations with Western Europe.<ref>Buchanan, pp. 168–169</ref> Although indirect conflict between Cold War powers continued through the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions were beginning to ease.<ref name = "Palmowski" />
===Nixon, Brezhnev, and détente===
[[Image:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Leonid Brezhnev]] and [[Jimmy Carter]] sign SALT II treaty, June 18, 1979, in [[Vienna]]]]
{{main|Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|Helsinki Accords|Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe}}
Following his China visit, Nixon met with Soviet leaders, including Brezhnev in Moscow.<ref name="bbc-nb">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/22/newsid_4373000/4373149.stm|title=President Nixon arrives in Moscow|publisher=BBC News|date=May 22, 1972|accessdate=2008-06-10}}</ref> These [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] resulted in two landmark arms control treaties: [[SALT I]], the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/thelife/apolitician/thepresident/index.php|title=The President|accessdate=2009-03-27|publisher=Richard Nixon Presidential Library}}</ref> and the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]], which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. These aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles.<ref name = "Karabell" />
Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established the groundbreaking new policy of ''[[détente]]'' (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties,<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" /> including agreements for increased trade. As a result of their meetings, ''détente'' would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would live mutually.<ref name="bbc-nb"/>
Meanwhile, these developments coincided with the "[[Ostpolitik]]" of West German Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]].<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 154"/> Other agreements were concluded to stabilize the situation in Europe, culminating in the [[Helsinki Accords]] signed at the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe]] in 1975.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=188}}</ref>
===Late 1970s deterioration of relations===
In the 1970s, the [[KGB]], led by [[Yuri Andropov]], continued to persecute distinguished Soviet personalities such as [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] and [[Andrei Sakharov]], who were criticising the Soviet leadership in harsh terms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=186}}</ref> Indirect conflict between the superpowers continued through this period of détente in the Third World, particularly during political crises in the Middle East, [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|Chile]], [[Ogaden War|Ethiopia]] and [[Angolan Civil War|Angola]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=178}}</ref>
Although President [[Jimmy Carter]] tried to place another limit on the arms race with a [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|SALT II]] agreement in 1979,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/18/newsid_4508000/4508409.stm|title=Leaders agree arms reduction treaty|publisher=BBC News|date=June 18, 2008|accessdate=2008-06-10}}</ref> his efforts were undermined by the other events that year, including the [[Iranian Revolution]] and the [[Nicaraguan Revolution]], which both ousted pro-US regimes, and his retaliation against Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in December.<ref name = "Lefeber 1991" />
==Second Cold War (1979–85)==
[[Image:Guerra Fria 1980.svg|thumb|right|This map shows the two essential [[sphere of influence|global spheres]] during the Cold War in 1980–the US in blue and the USSR in red. See the legend on the map for more details.]]
{{Main|Cold War (1979–1985)}}
The term ''second Cold War'' has been used by some historians to refer to the period of intensive reawakening of Cold War tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased between the major powers with both sides becoming more militaristic.<ref name = "Halliday" />
===Afghanistan war===
{{main|Soviet war in Afghanistan}}
During December 1979, approximately 75,000 Soviet troops [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|invaded]] Afghanistan in order to support the Marxist government formed by ex-Prime-minister [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]], assassinated that September by one of his party rivals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=210}}</ref> As a result, US President [[Jimmy Carter]] withdrew the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|SALT II]] treaty from the [[United States Senate|Senate]], imposed embargoes on grain and technology shipments to the USSR, demanded a significant increase in military spending, and further announced that the United States would boycott the [[1980 Summer Olympics|1980 Moscow Summer Olympics]]. He described the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan as "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War".<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=211}}</ref>
===Reagan and Thatcher===
In 1980, [[Ronald Reagan]] defeated Jimmy Carter in the US [[United States presidential election, 1980|presidential election]], vowing to increase military spending and confront the Soviets everywhere.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=189}}</ref> Both Reagan and new British Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] denounced the Soviet Union and its [[ideology]]. Reagan labeled the Soviet Union an "[[evil empire]]" and predicted that Communism would be left on the "[[ash heap of history]]".<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 197">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=197}}</ref>
===Polish Solidarity movement===
{{main|Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Soviet reaction to the Polish Crisis of 1980-1981|Martial law in Poland}}
[[Pope John Paul II]] provided a moral focus for [[anti-communism]]; a visit to his native Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and [[nationalism|nationalist]] resurgence centered on the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity movement]] that galvanized opposition and may have led to his [[1981 Pope John Paul II assassination attempt|attempted assassination]] two years later.<ref>Smith, p. 182</ref> Reagan also imposed economic sanctions on Poland to protest [[Martial law in Poland|the suppression]] of Solidarity.<ref name="Gaddis219" /> In response, [[Mikhail Suslov]], the Kremlin's top ideologist, advised Soviet leaders not to intervene if Poland fell under the control of Solidarity, for fear it might lead to heavy economic sanctions, representing a catastrophe for the Soviet economy.<ref name="Gaddis219">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=219–222}}</ref>
===Soviet and US military and economic issues===
[[Image:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|thumb|right|US and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006]]
{{see|Brezhnev stagnation|Strategic Defense Initiative|RSD-10 Pioneer|MGM-31 Pershing}}
Moscow had built up a military that consumed as much as 25 percent of the Soviet Union's gross national product at the expense of [[consumer goods in the Soviet Union|consumer goods]] and investment in civilian sectors.<ref name="LaFeber 2002, p. 332">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=332}}</ref> Soviet spending on the [[arms race]] and other Cold War commitments both caused and exacerbated deep-seated structural problems in the Soviet system, which saw at least [[Brezhnev stagnation|a decade of economic stagnation]] during the late Brezhnev years.
Soviet investment in the defense sector was not driven by military necessity, but in large part by the interests of [[nomenklatura|massive party and state bureaucracies]] dependent on the sector for their own power and privileges.<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=335}}</ref> The [[Soviet Armed Forces]] became the largest in the world in terms of the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, in the number of troops in their ranks, and in the sheer size of their [[military-industrial complex|military–industrial base]].<ref name = "Odom">{{Harvnb|Odom|2000|p=1}}</ref> However, the quantitative advantages held by the Soviet military often concealed areas where the Eastern Bloc dramatically lagged behind the West.<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=340}}</ref>
[[Image:USSR stamp S.Smith 1985 5k.jpg|thumb|120px|right|After ten year old American [[Samantha Smith]] wrote a letter to [[Yuri Andropov]] expressing her fear of nuclear war, Andropov invited Smith to the Soviet Union.]]
By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and army surpassing that of the United States. Previously, the US had relied on the qualitative superiority of its weapons, but the gap had been narrowed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/RussiaandEurasia/EM27.cfm|title=New Evidence of Moscow's Military Threat|accessdate= 2007-05-13|author=Hamm, Manfred R.|date=June 23, 1983|publisher=The Heritage Foundation}}</ref> Ronald Reagan began massively building up the United States military not long after taking office. This led to the largest peacetime defense buildup in United States history.<ref>{{cite news|work=The Boston Globe|publisher=Encyclopedia.com|accessdate=2008-06-21|date=March 29, 2006|title=Caspar W. Weinberger, 88; Architect of Massive Pentagon Buildup|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-7946374.html|author=Feeney, Mark}}</ref>
Tensions continued intensifying in the early 1980s when Reagan revived the [[B-1 Lancer]] program that was canceled by the Carter administration, produced [[LGM-118 Peacekeeper]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/lgm-118.htm|title=LGM-118A Peacekeeper|accessdate=2007-04-10|date=August 15, 2000|publisher=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref> installed US cruise missiles in Europe, and announced his experimental [[Strategic Defense Initiative]], dubbed "Star Wars" by the media, a defense program to shoot down missiles in mid-flight.<ref name="ShieldSpace?">Lakoff, p. 263</ref>
With the background of a buildup in tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States, and the deployment of Soviet [[RSD-10 Pioneer]] [[ballistic missile]]s targeting Western Europe, NATO decided, under the impetus of the Carter presidency, to deploy [[MGM-31 Pershing]] and cruise missiles in Europe, primarily West Germany.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=202}}</ref> This deployment would have placed missiles just 10 minutes' striking distance from Moscow.<ref>Garthoff, p. 88</ref>
After Reagan's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not respond by further building its military<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_25/b3888038_mz011.htm|title=The Cowboy who Roped in Russia|date=June 21, 2004|work=Business Week|author=Barnathan, Joyce|accessdate=2008-03-17}}</ref> because the enormous military expenses, along with inefficient [[Planned economy|planned manufacturing]] and [[collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivized agriculture]], were already a heavy burden for the [[Economy of the Soviet Union|Soviet economy]].<ref name="Gaidar, Yegor"/> At the same time, Reagan persuaded [[Saudi Arabia]] to increase oil production,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iet.ru/files/persona/gaidar/un_en.htm|title=Public Expectations and Trust towards the Government: Post-Revolution Stabilization and its Discontents|accessdate=2008-03-15|author=Gaidar, Yegor|publisher=The Institute for the Economy in Transition}}</ref> even as other non-OPEC nations were increasing production.<ref name="EIA">"[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html Official Energy Statistics of the US Government]", EIA — International Energy Data and Analysis. Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref> These developments contributed to the [[1980s oil glut]], which affected the Soviet Union, as oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues.<ref name="LaFeber 2002, p. 332"/><ref name="Gaidar, Yegor"/> Issues with [[command economy|command economics]],<ref name="hardt1">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=1}}</ref> oil prices decreases and large military expenditures gradually brought the Soviet economy to stagnation.<ref name="Gaidar, Yegor">Gaidar 2007 pp. 190–205</ref>
On September 1, 1983, the Soviet Union shot down [[Korean Air Lines Flight 007]], a [[Boeing 747]] with 269 people aboard, including sitting Congressman [[Larry McDonald]], when it violated Soviet airspace just past the west coast of [[Sakhalin|Sakhalin Island]] near [[Moneron Island]] —an act which Reagan characterized as a "massacre". This act increased support for military deployment, overseen by Reagan, which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev.<ref name="DoernerFive">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926169-5,00.html|title=Atrocity in the skies|work=Time|date=September 12, 1983|accessdate=2008-06-08}}</ref> The [[Able Archer 83]] exercise in November 1983, a realistic simulation of a coordinated NATO nuclear release, has been called most dangerous moment since the Cuban Missile Crisis, as the Soviet leadership keeping a close watch on it considered a nuclear attack to be imminent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=228}}</ref>
US domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War.<ref name="LaFeber323">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=323}}</ref> The Reagan administration emphasized the use of quick, low-cost [[counter-insurgency]] tactics to intervene in foreign conflicts.<ref name="LaFeber323" /> In 1983, the Reagan administration intervened in the multisided [[Lebanese Civil War]], invaded [[Grenada]], bombed [[Libya]] and backed the Central American [[Contras]], anti-communist paramilitaries seeking to overthrow the Soviet-aligned [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] government in Nicaragua.<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 212"/> While Reagan's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the US, his backing of the Contra rebels was [[Iran-Contra affair|mired in controversy]].<ref name = "Reagan">{{cite book|author=Reagan, Ronald|editor=Foner, Eric; Garraty, John Arthur|title=The Reader's companion to American history|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KrWDw-_devcC|accessdate=2008-06-16|year=1991|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books|isbn=0395513723}}</ref>
Meanwhile, the Soviets incurred high costs for their own foreign interventions. Although Brezhnev was convinced in 1979 that the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]] would be brief, Muslim guerrillas, aided by the US and other countries, waged a fierce resistance against the invasion.<ref name="LaFeber314">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=314}}</ref> The Kremlin sent nearly 100,000 troops to support its puppet regime in Afghanistan, leading many outside observers to dub the war "the Soviets' Vietnam".<ref name="LaFeber314" /> However, Moscow's quagmire in Afghanistan was far more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for the Americans because the conflict coincided with a period of internal decay and domestic crisis in the Soviet system.
A senior [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] official predicted such an outcome as early as 1980, positing that the invasion resulted in part from a "domestic crisis within the Soviet {{nowrap|system. ... It}} may be that the thermodynamic law of [[entropy]] {{nowrap|has ... caught}} up with the Soviet system, which now seems to expend more energy on simply maintaining its equilibrium than on improving itself. We could be seeing a period of foreign movement at a time of internal decay".<ref name =" Dobrynin">{{Harvnb|Dobrynin|2001|p=438–439}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Maynes|1980|p=1–2}}</ref> The Soviets were not helped by their aged and sclerotic leadership either: Brezhnev, virtually incapacitated in his last years, was succeeded by Andropov and Chernenko, neither of whom lasted long. After Chernenko's death, Reagan was asked why he had not negotiated with Soviet leaders. Reagan quipped, "They keep dying on me".<ref>Karaagac, p. 67</ref>
==End of the Cold War (1985–91)==
{{Main|Cold War (1985–1991)}}
[[Image:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|thumb|right|Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan sign the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty|INF Treaty]] at the White House, 1987]]
===Gorbachev reforms===
{{see|Mikhail Gorbachev|perestroika|glasnost}}
By the time the comparatively youthful [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] in 1985,<ref name="Gaddis 2005, p. 197"/> the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s.<ref name="LaFeber331" /> These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state.<ref name="LaFeber331">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=331–333}}</ref>
An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called ''[[perestroika]]'', or restructuring.<ref name="Gaddis231">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=231–233}}</ref> Perestroika relaxed the [[production quota]] system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country's resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more profitable areas in the civilian sector.<ref name="Gaddis231" />
Despite initial scepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West.<ref name= "Palmowski" /><ref name="LaFeber2002">{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=300–340}}</ref> Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced ''[[glasnost]]'', or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=7}}</ref> ''Glasnost'' was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the [[Communist party|Communist Party]] and moderate the abuse of power in the [[Central Committee]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=33}}</ref> Glasnost also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating [[détente]] between the two nations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gibbs|1999|p=61}}</ref>
===Thaw in relations===
{{see|Reykjavík Summit|Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty|START I|Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany}}
In response to the Kremlin's military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race.<ref name="Gaddis229">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=229–230}}</ref> The first was held in November 1985 in [[Geneva|Geneva, Switzerland]].<ref name="Gaddis229" /> At one stage the two men, accompanied only by a translator, agreed in principle to reduce each country's nuclear arsenal by 50 percent.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/21/newsid_2549000/2549897.stm 1985: "Superpowers aim for 'safer world'"], BBC News, November 21, 1985. Retrieved on July 4, 2008.</ref>
[[Image:Evstafiev-afghan-apc-passes-russian.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1988]] A second [[Reykjavík Summit]] was held in [[Iceland]]. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative, which Gorbachev wanted eliminated: Reagan refused.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE0DA1F3BF93AA15756C0A96E948260|title=Toward the Summit; Previous Reagan-Gorbachev Summits|work=The New York Times|accessdate=2008-06-21|date=May 29, 1988}}</ref> The negotiations failed, but the third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure.<ref name="fas">{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html|title=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces|accessdate=2008-06-21|publisher=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref>
East–West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to-late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and [[George H. W. Bush]] signed the [[START I]] arms control treaty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=255}}</ref> During the following year it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain.<ref name="Shearman76"/> In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognised as irrelevant and the Soviets [[Sinatra Doctrine|officially declared]] that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Eastern Europe.<ref name="Gaddis248">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=248}}</ref>
In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan<ref name="Gaddis 2005, pp. 235–236">{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=235–236}}</ref> and by 1990 Gorbachev [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany|consented]] to [[German reunification]],<ref name="Shearman76">{{Harvnb|Shearman|1995|p=76}}</ref> the only alternative being a [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen]] scenario.<ref>{{Harvnb|Shearman|1995|p=74}}</ref> When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev's "[[Common European Home]]" concept began to take shape.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ena.lu/?doc=11160| title=Address given by Mikhail Gorbachev to the Council of Europe| publisher=[[European NAvigator|Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe]]| date=1989-07-06| accessdate=2007-02-11}}</ref>
On December 3, 1989, Gorbachev and Reagan's successor, [[George H. W. Bush]], declared the Cold War over at the [[Malta Summit]];<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_4119000/4119950.stm Malta summit ends Cold War], BBC News, December 3, 1989. Retrieved on June 11, 2008.</ref> a year later, the two former rivals were partners in the [[Gulf War]] against longtime Soviet ally [[Iraq]].<ref>Goodby, p. 26</ref>
===Faltering Soviet system===
{{see|Economy of the Soviet Union|Revolutions of 1989|Baltic Way}}
By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the Communist leaders of the [[Warsaw Pact]] states [[Revolutions of 1989|were losing power]].<ref name="Gaddis 2005, pp. 235–236"/> In the USSR itself, ''glasnost'' weakened the bonds that held the Soviet Union together<ref name="Gaddis248" /> and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] was forced to surrender its 73-year-old monopoly on state power.<ref>Gorbachev, pp. 287, 290, 292</ref>
At the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by ''glasnost'' and the festering "nationalities question" increasingly led the Union's component republics to declare their autonomy from Moscow, with the [[Baltic states]] withdrawing from the Union entirely.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=253}}</ref> The [[Revolutions of 1989|1989 revolutionary wave]] that swept across Central and Eastern Europe overthrew the Soviet-style communist states, such as Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lefeber|Fitzmaurice|Vierdag|1991|p=221}}</ref> Romania being the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=247}}</ref>
===Soviet dissolution===
{{see|January 1991 events in Latvia|1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)}}
[[File:CIS-Map 2.png|right|thumb|200px|[[Commonwealth of Independent States]], the official end of the [[Soviet Union]]]]
Gorbachev's permissive attitude toward Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory; even Bush, who strove to maintain friendly relations, condemned the January 1991 killings in [[January 1991 events in Latvia|Latvia]] and [[January Events|Lithuania]], privately warning that economic ties would be frozen if the violence continued.<ref>Goldgeier, p. 27</ref> The USSR was fatally weakened by a [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|failed coup]] and a growing number of [[Republics of the Soviet Union#Soviet Union in its final state|Soviet republics]], particularly [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]], who threatened to secede from the USSR. The [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], created on December 21, 1991, is viewed as a successor entity to the [[Soviet Union]] but, according to Russia's leaders, its purpose was to "allow a civilized divorce" between the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics]] and is comparable to a loose [[confederation]].<ref>[http://rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/12/14b6b499-9eb2-4dee-b96c-784ec918969a.html Soviet Leaders Recall ‘Inevitable’ Breakup Of Soviet Union], [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], December 8, 2006. Retrieved on May 20, 2008.</ref> The USSR was declared officially dissolved on December 25, 1991.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=256–257}}</ref>
==Legacy==
{{Main|Cold War Legacies}}
<!-- added link to make direct association and to be consistent with other Sections under topic Cold War -->
Following the Cold War, Russia cut military spending dramatically, creating a wrenching adjustment as the military-industrial sector had previously employed one of every five Soviet adults<ref name = "Aslund">Åslund, p. 49</ref>, meaning its dismantling left millions throughout the former Soviet Union unemployed.<ref name="Aslund" /> After Russia embarked on capitalist economic reforms in the 1990s, it suffered [[1998 Russian financial crisis|a financial crisis]] and a recession more severe than the US and Germany had experienced during the [[Great Depression]].<ref name = "Nolan">Nolan, pp. 17–18</ref> Russian living standards have worsened overall in the post-Cold War years, although the economy has resumed growth since 1999.<ref name="Nolan" />
The legacy of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs.<ref name = "Halliday" /> After the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]], the post-Cold War world is widely considered as [[Polarity in international relations#Unipolarity|unipolar]], with the United States the sole remaining superpower.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm Country profile: United States of America]. [[BBC News]]. Retrieved on March 11, 2007</ref><ref>Nye, p. 157</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Blum|2006|p=87}}</ref> The Cold War defined the political role of the United States in the post-World War II world: by 1989 the US held military alliances with 50 countries, and had 1.5 million troops posted abroad in 117 countries.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> The Cold War also institutionalized a global commitment to huge, permanent peacetime [[military-industrial complex]]es and large-scale [[military funding of science]].<ref name = "Calhoun">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Calhoun, Craig|encyclopedia=Dictionary of the Social Sciences|title=Cold War (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SvSZHgAACAAJ&dq=Dictionary+of+the+Social+Sciences|accessdate=2008-06-16|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0195123719}}</ref>
Military expenditures by the US during the Cold War years were estimated to have been $8 trillion, while nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the [[Korean War]] and [[Vietnam War]].<ref>{{Harvnb|LaFeber|2002|p=1}}</ref> Although the loss of life among Soviet soldiers is difficult to estimate, as a share of their gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was far higher than that of the US.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=213}}</ref>
In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers' [[proxy war]]s around the globe, most notably in [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Gaddis|2005|p=266}}</ref> Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; the incidence of interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises has declined sharply in the post-Cold War years.<ref name = "Marshall">[http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf Monty G. Marshall and Ted Gurr, ''Peace and Conflict 2005''] (PDF), Center for Systemic Peace (2006). Retrieved on June 14, 2008.</ref>
No separate [[campaign medal]] has been authorized for the Cold War; however, in 1998, the [[United State Congress]] authorized Cold War Recognition Certificates "to all members of the armed forces and qualified federal government civilian personnel who faithfully and honorably served the United States anytime during the Cold War era, which is defined as Sept. 2, 1945 to Dec. 26, 1991." <ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.hrc.army.mil/site/active/tagd/coldwar/default.htm| title=Cold War Certificate Program| accessdate=2009-10-17|format=PDF}}</ref>
The legacy of Cold War conflict, however, is not always easily erased, as many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute.<ref name="Halliday" /> The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by Communist governments has produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia.<ref name = "Halliday" /> In Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth and a large increase in the number of [[liberal democracy|liberal democracies]], while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by [[failed state|state failure]].<ref name = "Halliday" />
==Historiography==
{{main|Historiography of the Cold War}}
As soon as the term "Cold War" was popularized to refer to post-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, interpreting the course and origins of the conflict has been a source of heated controversy among historians, political scientists, and journalists.<ref name = "Nashel">{{cite encyclopedia|author= Nashel, Jonathan|editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John|encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History|title=Cold War (1945–91): Changing Interpretations (entire chapter)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xtMKHgAACAAJ&dq=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History|accessdate=2008-06-16|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0195071980}}</ref> In particular, historians have sharply disagreed as to who was responsible for the breakdown of Soviet–US relations after the Second World War; and whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable, or could have been avoided.<ref name="Brinkley">Brinkley, pp. 798–799</ref> Historians have also disagreed on what exactly the Cold War was, what the sources of the conflict were, and how to disentangle patterns of action and reaction between the two sides.<ref name = "Halliday" />
Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse, several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified. Historians commonly speak of three differing approaches to the study of the Cold War: "orthodox" accounts, "revisionism", and "post-revisionism".<ref name = "Calhoun" />
"Orthodox" accounts place responsibility for the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion into Eastern Europe.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> "Revisionist" writers place more responsibility for the breakdown of post-war peace on the United States, citing a range of US efforts to isolate and confront the Soviet Union well before the end of World War II.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> "Post-revisionists" see the events of the Cold War as more nuanced, and attempt to be more balanced in determining what occurred during the Cold War.<ref name = "Calhoun" /> Much of the historiography on the Cold War weaves together two or even all three of these broad categories.<ref name = "Byrd" />
==See also==
{{Portal}}
* [[American Empire]]
* [[Culture during the Cold War]]
* [[Nuclear war]]
* [[Post-World War II boom]]
* [[Soviet Empire]]
* [[Timeline of events in the Cold War]]
* [[Western betrayal]]
* [[World War III]]
* [[Cold War Legacies]]
==Footnotes==
{{reflist|3}}
==References==
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==Further reading==
{{Main|List of primary and secondary sources on the Cold War}}
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Cold War}}
;Archives
* [http://www.osaarchivum.org/guide/ Open Society Archives, Budapest (Hungary), one of the biggest history of communism and cold war archives in the world]
* [http://www.cybertrn.demon.co.uk An archive of UK civil defence material]
* [http://www.conelrad.com/ CONELRAD Cold War Pop Culture Site]
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-71-274/conflict_war/cold_war/ CBC Digital Archives{{ndash}} Cold War Culture: The Nuclear Fear of the 1950s and 1960s]
* [http://www.cwihp.org The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP)]
* [http://coldwarfiles.org The Cold War Files]
* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/ CNN Cold War Knowledge Bank] comparison of articles on Cold War topics in the Western and the Soviet press between 1945 and 1991
* [http://community.theblackvault.com/articles/entry/The-CAESAR-POLO-and-ESAU-Papers- The CAESAR, POLO, and ESAU Papers]–This collection of declassified analytic monographs and reference aids, designated within the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Directorate of Intelligence (DI) as the CAESAR, ESAU, and POLO series, highlights the CIA's efforts from the 1950s through the mid-1970s to pursue in-depth research on Soviet and Chinese internal politics and Sino-Soviet relations. The documents reflect the views of seasoned analysts who had followed closely their special areas of research and whose views were shaped in often heated debate.
;Bibliographies
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues/Arms+Race Annotated bibliography for the arms race from the Alsos Digital Library]
* [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Cold_War%2C_Bibliography Annotated bibliography from ''Citizendium'']
;News
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/themes/world_politics/cold_war/default.stm Video and audio news reports from during the cold war]
;Educational Resources
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/128mimi/ ''Minuteman Missile National Historic Site: Protecting a Legacy of the Cold War ,'' a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan]
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{{United States topics}}
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[[Category:Cold War|*]]
[[Category:Global conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars involving the United States]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:20th century]]
[[Category:Historical eras]]
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[[an:Guerra Fría]]
[[ar:حرب باردة]]
[[anarz:Guerraحرب Fríaباردة]]
[[az:Soyuq Müharibə]]
[[bat-smg:Šaltuojė vaina]]
[[bn:স্নায়ুযুদ্ধ]]
[[zh-min-nan:Léng-chiàn]]
[[be:Халодная вайна]]
[[be-x-old:Халодная вайна]]
[[bg:Студена война]]
[[bn:স্নায়ুযুদ্ধ]]
[[br:Brezel Yen]]
[[bs:Hladni rat]]
[[br:Brezel Yen]]
[[bg:Студена война]]
[[ca:Guerra Freda]]
[[cs:Studená válka]]
[[cv:Сивлек вăрçă]]
[[cs:Studená válka]]
[[cy:Y Rhyfel Oer]]
[[da:Den kolde krig]]
[[de:Kalter Krieg]]
[[et:Külm sõda]]
[[el:Ψυχρός πόλεμος]]
[[eml:Guèra fradda]]
[[en:Cold War]]
[[eo:Malvarma milito]]
[[es:Guerra Fría]]
[[eoet:MalvarmaKülm militosõda]]
[[eu:Gerra Hotza]]
[[ext:Guerra Fria]]
[[eu:Gerra Hotza]]
[[fa:جنگ سرد]]
[[hiffi:ColdKylmä Warsota]]
[[fiu-vro:Külm sõda]]
[[fo:Kalda kríggið]]
[[fr:Guerre froide]]
[[gd:An Cogadh Fuar]]
[[gl:Guerra fría]]
[[he:המלחמה הקרה]]
[[gan:冷戰]]
[[ko:냉전]]
[[hi:शीतयुद्ध]]
[[hif:Cold War]]
[[hr:Hladni rat]]
[[iohu:Kolda militoHidegháború]]
[[id:Perang Dingin]]
[[io:Kolda milito]]
[[is:Kalda stríðið]]
[[it:Guerra fredda]]
[[ja:冷戦]]
[[he:המלחמה הקרה]]
[[jv:Perang Dingin]]
[[kn:ಶೀತಲ ಸಮರ]]
[[ka:ცივი ომი]]
[[kaa:Salqın urıs]]
[[kk:Суық соғыс]]
[[swkn:Vitaಶೀತಲ baridiಸಮರ]]
[[ko:냉전]]
[[ku:Şerê Sar]]
[[la:Bellum Frigidum]]
[[lv:Aukstais karš]]
[[lb:Kale Krich]]
[[li:Kouwe Oorlog]]
[[lt:Šaltasis karas]]
[[lilv:KouweAukstais Oorlogkarš]]
[[hu:Hidegháború]]
[[mk:Студена војна]]
[[ml:ശീതയുദ്ധം]]
[[mn:Хүйтэн дайн]]
[[mr:शीतयुद्ध]]
[[arz:حرب باردة]]
[[ms:Perang Dingin]]
[[mwl:Guerra Frie]]
[[mn:Хүйтэн дайн]]
[[my:စစ်အေးတိုက်ပွဲ]]
[[nds:Koolt Krieg]]
[[nl:Koude Oorlog]]
[[jann:冷戦Den kalde krigen]]
[[no:Den kalde krigen]]
[[nn:Den kalde krigen]]
[[nrm:Fraide Dgèrre]]
[[oc:Guèrra Freja]]
[[uz:Sovuq urush]]
[[pa:ਸ਼ੀਤ ਜੰਗ]]
[[pap:Guera Frieu]]
[[nds:Koolt Krieg]]
[[pl:Zimna wojna]]
[[pt:Guerra Fria]]
[[kaa:Salqın urıs]]
[[ro:Războiul Rece]]
[[ru:Холодная война]]
[[stq:Koolde Kriech]]
[[scn:Guerra Fridda]]
[[sh:Hladni rat]]
[[simple:Cold War]]
[[sk:Studená vojna]]
[[sl:Hladna vojna]]
[[sr:Хладни рат]]
[[shstq:HladniKoolde ratKriech]]
[[fi:Kylmä sota]]
[[sv:Kalla kriget]]
[[tlsw:DigmaangVita Malamigbaridi]]
[[ta:பனிப்போர்]]
[[th:สงครามเย็น]]
[[tg:Ҷанги Сард]]
[[th:สงครามเย็น]]
[[tl:Digmaang Malamig]]
[[tr:Soğuk Savaş]]
[[ug:سوغۇق ئۇرۇش]]
[[uk:Холодна війна]]
[[ur:سرد جنگ]]
[[uguz:سوغۇقSovuq ئۇرۇشurush]]
[[za:Lengx Can]]
[[vec:Guera Freda]]
[[vi:Chiến tranh Lạnh]]
[[fiu-vro:Külm sõda]]
[[war:Matugnaw nga Gyera]]
[[yi:קאלטער קריג]]
[[zh-yueza:冷戰Lengx Can]]
[[bat-smg:Šaltuojė vaina]]
[[zh:冷战]]
[[zh-min-nan:Léng-chiàn]]
[[zh-yue:冷戰]]
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